Excess Value Created as a Performance Metric and its Determination Utilizing the TEVA Measure
https://doi.org/10.26794/2587-5671-2022-26-2-48-61
Abstract
The paper explores the excess value created (EVC) metric, which is an aggregated measure of the financial performance of a company over a multi-period measurement interval. The relevance of the study is due to the demand for practical solutions in the field of financial performance monitoring and incentive compensation, which makes it possible to achieve congruence between the interests of shareholders and the decisions of managers. The aim of the study is to build and justify a periodic financial measure that takes into account not only the current result but also the long-term consequences of management decisions. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the determination of the EVC metric via the TEVA indicator and providing the rationale for the new design of the performance measure. The result of the study is the derivation of formulas for calculating the EVC measure on multi-period and one-period intervals, which are free from restrictions on changes in the capital structure and the cost of capital, allow for a time-varying systematic risk of operating activities and possess the advantage of computational simplicity important for practical applications. The study concludes that the measurement of value created using the EVC indicator determined via TEVA makes it possible to achieve close conformity of the metric constructed to the real-world conditions with the unification of calculations in its retrospective and forecast components based on data available from historical and Pro Forma financial statements and information from the capital market.
About the Author
R. G. IbragimovRussian Federation
Rauf G. Ibragimov — Cand. Sci. (Phys.-Math.), Assoc. Prof., Department of Financial Management, Management Accounting and International Standards of Financial Activities.
Moscow
Competing Interests:
The author has no conflicts of interest to declare
References
1. Flower J.F. Measurement of divisional performance. Accounting and Business Research. 1971;1(3):205–214. DOI: 10.1080/00014788.1971.9728569
2. Stewart G.B. The quest for value: The EVATM management guide. New York, NY: Harper Business; 1991. 781 p.
3. O’Hanlon J., Peasnell K. Wall Street’s contribution to management accounting: The Stern Stewart EVA® financial management system. Management Accounting Research. 1998;9(4):421–444. DOI: 10.1006/mare.1998.0089
4. Martin J.D., Petty J.W.Value based management: The corporate response to shareholder revolution. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press; 2000. 249 p.
5. Young S.D., O’Byrne S.F. EVA and value-based management: A practical guide to implementation. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2000. 493 p.
6. Yashin S.N., Koshelev E.V., Kuptsov A.V.Application of the method of economic value added for motivation of top managers of corporation. Finansy i kredit = Finance and Credit. 2018;24(1):52–64. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.24891/fc.24.1.52
7. Lukasevich I. Ya. The use of added value metrics in the investment project assessment. Ekonomika. Nalogi. Pravo = Economics, Taxes & Law. 2013;(3):72–79. (In Russ.).
8. Karpenko O.Analytical model of agrochemical sector company value management. APK: Ekonomika, upravlenie = Agro-Industrial Complex: Economics, Management. 2020;(8):20–31. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.33305/208–20
9. Batkovsky A., Batkovsky M., Kravchuk P. Valuation of business performance in production diversification controlling at joint-stock enterprises. Kontrolling = Controlling. 2021;(1):2–6. (In Russ.).
10. Bushueva N.V., Sklar B.S., Syromyatnikov A.A. Practical aspects of the formation of the company’s financial strategy based on market performance indicators. Estestvenno-gumanitarnye issledovaniya = Natural Humanitarian Studies. 2018;(19):42–52. (In Russ.).
11. Utkin D.A., Isakov A.S., Kolyshkin L.M., Sokolyansky V.V., Knyazeva E.V. Comparative analysis of companies’ efficiency of the rocket and space industry on the example of Lockheed Martin company, the Boeing company and United Technologies. Ekonomika i predprinimatel’stvo = Journal of Economy and Entrepreneurship. 2016;(6):72–78. (In Russ.).
12. Gorskiy M.A., Epifanov I.I. Practice of application of WACC and EVA indicators in evaluation of capital structure and market efficiency of production corporations. Vestnik Altaiskoi akademii ekonomiki i prava = Journal of Altai Academy of Economics and Law. 2019;(10–1):25–33. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.17513/vaael.741
13. Yakovleva E.A., Kozlovskaya E.A., Boyko Yu.V. Evaluation of the innovative potential of the enterprise based on the cost approach. Voprosy innovatsionnoi ekonomiki = Russian Journal of Innovation Economics. 2018;8(2):267–282. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.18334/vinec.8.2.39139
14. Titov A.I., Sokolianskii V.V., Rybina G.A. Research of influences of investment in intellectual capital of the company on its cost using EVA model and FGV index on the example of JSC “Academician M.F. Reshetnev” and “Information satellite systems” and Thales Alenia Space. Ekonomicheskie nauki = Economic Sciences. 2016;(139):38– 42. (In Russ.).
15. Preinreich G.A.D. Valuation and amortization. The Accounting Review. 1937;12(3):209–226. DOI: 10.2307/239096
16. Reichelstein S. Investment decisions and managerial performance evaluation. Review of Accounting Studies. 1997;2(2):157–180. DOI: 10.1023/a:1018376808228
17. Lundholm R., O’Keefe T.Reconciling value estimates from the discounted cash flow model and the residual income model. Contemporary Accounting Research. 2001;18(2):311–335. DOI: 10.1506/w13b-k4bt‑455n-ttr2
18. Heinrichs N., Hess D., Homburg C., Lorenz M., Sievers S. Extended dividend, cash flow, and residual income valuation models: Accounting for deviations from ideal conditions. Contemporary Accounting Research. 2013;30(1):42–79. DOI: 10.1111/j.1911–3846.2011.01148.x
19. Bromwich M. Measurement of divisional performance: A comment and extension. Accounting and Business Research. 1973;3(10):123–132. DOI: 10.1080/00014788.1973.9729009
20. Bromwich M., Walker M. Residual income past and future. Management Accounting Research. 1998;9(4):391–419. DOI: 10.1006/mare.1998.0091
21. Ibragimov R.G. Financial estimate of administrative solutions: About application and interpretation of parameter EVA. Audit i finansovyi analiz = Audit and Financial Analysis. 2007;(5):141–149. (In Russ.).
22. Brewer P.C., Chandra G., Hock C.A. Economic value added (EVA): Its uses and limitations. SAM Advanced Management Journal. 1999;64(2):4–11.
23. Baker H. K., Deo P., Mukherjee T. EVA revisited. Journal of Financial Education. 2009;35:1–22. DOI: 10.2307/41948621
24. O’Byrne S.F., Young D.S. Why capital efficiency measures are rarely used in incentive plans, and how to change that. Journal of Applied Corporate Finance. 2009;21(2):87–92. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745–6622.2009.00229.x
25. Brossy R., Balkcom J.E. Compensation: Getting executives to create value. Journal of Business Strategy. 1994;15(1):18–21. DOI: 10.1108/eb039610
26. Nuelle F. The two faces of EVA. Chief Executive. 1996;100:38–39.
27. Lovata L.M., Costigan M.L. Empirical analysis of adopters of economic value added. Management Accounting Research. 2002;13(2):215–228. DOI: 10.1006/mare.2002.0181
28. Rogerson W.P. Intertemporal cost allocation and managerial investment incentives: A theory explaining the use of economic value added as a performance measure. Journal of Political Economy. 1997;105(4):770–795. DOI: 10.1086/262093
29. Dutta S., Reichelstein S. Accrual accounting for performance evaluation. Review of Accounting Studies. 2005;10(4):527–552. DOI: 10.1007/s11142–005–4213–6
30. Mohnen A., Bareket M. Performance measurement for investment decisions under capital constraints. Review of Accounting Studies. 2007;12(1):1–22. DOI: 10.1007/s11142–006–9020–1
31. O’Byrne S.F., Gressle M.E. How competitive pay undermines pay for performance (and how to change that). Journal of Applied Corporate Finance. 2013;25(2):26–38. DOI: 10.1111/jacf.12014
32. O’Byrne S.F., Young S.D. The evolution of executive pay policy at General Motors, 1918–2008. Journal of Applied Corporate Finance. 2017;29(1):36–49. DOI: 10.1111/jacf.12219
33. O’Byrne S.F. A better way to measure operating performance (or why the EVA math really matters). Journal of Applied Corporate Finance. 2016;28(3):68–86. DOI: 10.1111/jacf.12194
34. O’Byrne S.F. Why EVA bonus plans failed — and how to revive them. Journal of Applied Corporate Finance. 2019;31(3):131–138. DOI: 10.1111/jacf.12368
35. Sirower M. L., O’Byrne S. F. The measurement of post-acquisition performance: Toward a value-based benchmarking methodology. Journal of Applied Corporate Finance. 1998;11(2):107–121. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745–6622.1998.tb00652.x
36. Kleiner G. System economics as a platform for development of modern economic theory. Voprosy ekonomiki. 2013;(6):4–28. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.32609/0042–8736–2013–6–4–28
37. Kleiner G. System management and system optimization of an enterprise. Sovremennaya konkurentsiya = Journal of Modern Competition. 2018;12(1):104–113. (In Russ.).
38. O’Hanlon J., Peasnell K. Residual income and value-creation: The missing link. Review of Accounting Studies. 2002;7(2–3):229–245. DOI: 10.1023/a:1020230203952
39. Schultze W., Weiler A. Performance measurement, value-creation and managerial compensation: The missing link. SSRN Electronic Journal. 2008. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.1088702
40. Ohlson J.A. Discussion of “Residual income and value-creation: The missing link”. Review of Accounting Studies. 2002;7(2–3):247–251. DOI: 10.1023/a:1020234304861
41. Schueler A. Periodische Performance-Messung durch Residualgewinne. Deutsches Steuerrecht. 2000;49:2105–2108.
42. Drukarczyk J., Schueler A. Approaches to value-based performance measurement. In: Arnold G., Davies M., eds. Value-based management: Context and application. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2000:255–304.
43. Vélez-Pareja I. Economic value measurement: Investment recovery and value added — IRVA. SSRN Electronic Journal. 2001. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.223429
44. Schueler A., Krotter S. The link between residual income and value created for levered firms: A note. Management Accounting Research. 2008;19(3):270–277. DOI: 10.1016/j.mar.2008.02.003
45. Lerner E.M., Carleton W.T. Financing decisions of the firm. The Journal of Finance. 1966;21(2):202–214. DOI: 10.2307/2977867
46. Ruback R. S. Capital cash flows: A simple approach to valuing risky cash flows. Financial Management. 2002;31(2):55–103. DOI: 10.2307/3666224
47. Koller T., Goedhart M., Wessels D. Valuation: Measuring and managing the value of companies. 7th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 2020. 896 p.
48. Penman S.H. Financial statements analysis and security valuation. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2001. 770 p.
49. Ibragimov R. Innate measurement bias in EVA and how to fix it: The total EVA and operating EVA. SSRN Electronic Journal. 2012. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.2129368
50. Ibragimov R., Vélez-Pareja I. Toward better measurement of financial performance: A robust OEVA-TEVA alternative to biased EVA. Rossiiskii zhurnal menedzhmenta = Russian Management Journal. 2019;17(2):139–158. DOI: 10.21638/spbu18.2019.201
51. Ibragimov R. Why we should not trust the EVA-based assessment of performance? Finansovye issledovaniya. 2015;(3):164–170. (In Russ.).
52. Graham J. R., Harvey C. R. The theory and practice of corporate fi nance: Evidence from the fi eld. Journal of Financial Economics. 2001;60(2–3):187–243. DOI: 10.1016/s0304–405x(01)00044–7
53. Mohanty P. Solving the circularity problem in estimating the cost of capital: A practical approach. SSRN Electronic Journal. 2003. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.413240
54. Pratt S. P., Grabowski R. J. Cost of capital: Application and examples. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 2010. 754 p.
55. Fernandez P. Valuing companies by cash flow discounting: Only APV does not require iteration. SSRN Electronic Journal. 2020. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.3682128
56. Tham J., Vélez-Pareja I. Principles of cash fl ow valuation: An integrated market-based approach. Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press; 2004. 350 p.
57. Velez-Pareja I., Tham J. Market value calculation and the solution of circularity between value and the weighted average cost of capital WACC. Revista de Administração Mackenzie. 2009;10(6):101–131. DOI: 10.1590/s1678–69712009000600007
58. Limitovskii M. A. Investment projects and real options in emerging markets. Moscow: Urait; 2019. 486 p. (In Russ.).
59. Brealey R. A., Myers S. C., Allen F. Principles of corporate finance. 13th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education; 2019. 992 p.
Review
For citations:
Ibragimov R.G. Excess Value Created as a Performance Metric and its Determination Utilizing the TEVA Measure. Finance: Theory and Practice. 2022;26(2):48-61. https://doi.org/10.26794/2587-5671-2022-26-2-48-61